Discuss the arguments for and against the reform of the international Essay

Discuss the arguments for and against the reform of the international financial (monetary) system - Essay Example (IMF Fact Sheet, p1, 1999) In 1994 the predicament of Mexican peso and in 1997 the economic crisis of Asia and the fall down of the Russian currency recently spot to the requirement for new-fangled instruments which will more successfully defend the constancy of the global financial structure. In October 1998 a meeting of IMF was held in Washington which presented a medium for the International Monetary Fund and its associate nations to speak to this concern. The conference evaluated a broad series of proposals that seek to reinforce the â€Å"structural design â€Å"of the worldwide financial structure This paper examines s the probable extent of the monetary recession at present being encountered in numerous Asian countries subsequent their monetary predicament. Previous global encounter subsequent to economic crises is observed, and statistics is assembled to display the seriousness of the "credit crisis† being encountered in numerous "tiger" financial systems. This confirmation, together with the high silhouette banking troubles in several these countries, guides to the inference that the majority of the pretentious countries will not encounter a noteworthy bounce back in expansion for a substantial period. (IMF Fact Sheet, p1, 1999) Subsequent the current monetary disaster in Asia, a lot of bystanders are endeavoring to measure how long the financial slump will continue in distinctive countries. This subject is obviously of main effect for the precisely precious countries. It is also imperative t from a New Zealand viewpoint as the unfavorable consequence of the Asian monetary recession on New Zealand will be overblown the longer the depression persists. (Krugman, p1, 1998) Predominantly significant here are the financial systems of our main dealing associates. Japan is New Zealands following principal sell abroad market subsequent to Australia, which sequentially is susceptible to a protracted recession in its Asian trading

Behavior finance and market efficiency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Behavior finance and market efficiency - Essay Example In this report, the main causes and underlying drivers of the recent global, financial crisis are explained. Also, comparison and contrast of behavioural and non-behavioural explanations commonly provided by finance academics have been made. The main causes behind the recent global, financial crisis include deregulation by financial institutions, accompanied by rapid financial innovation, which stimulated powerful financial booms. As the financial institutions became flawed, leading to the financial crises, governments responded to such crises with bailouts that allowed new expansions to begin (Crotty, 2009, p, 563). First, the integration of modern day financial markets with the era’s light government regulations, which is also referred to as the New Financial Architecture (NFA) led to the global, financial crisis (Crotty, 2009, p, 563). It should be noted that the New Financial Architecture is based on light regulation of commercial banks, lighter regulation on investment ba nks and little regulation on the shadow banking system. The shadow banking system represents hedge and private equity funds and special investments that are created by banks (Crotty, 2009, p, 563). Minimal regulation of financial institutions led excessive risk taking by numerous financial institutions because of the existing incentives in the market, without fear of restriction or limitation. The assumption that rational investors can make optimal decisions, and that only those who could handle risk, could take it is based on poor theoretical foundations, with no convincing empirical support (Crotty, 2009, p, 563). On the contrary, many investors and financial institution took excessive risk, which they could not manage. Consequently, the global, financial crisis had to arise when the potential losses associated with high risk occurred. Separately, it should be noted that perverse incentives affect key personnel of vital financial institutions such as commercial banks, insurance co mpanies, investment banks, hedge and private equity funds, as well as, mutual and pension funds to take excessive risk when financial markets are buoyant (Crotty, 2009, p, 563). For instance, the provision for no return of fees for securities for mortgage loans, if the securities suffered large losses made most market participants to take loans, as much as the loans may have not been viable or sound (Crotty, 2009, p, 563). Problems arose when the loan takers failed to service or repay the loans because their investments could not profit due to the prevailing market conditions. Financial innovation contributed to emergence of recent global, financial crisis because it led to the creation of financial products that are so complex that they are not transparent (Crotty, 2009, p, 563). This means that such financial products cannot be priced correctly. They are also illiquid and are not sold on markets. In the current financial market, there is a higher value of securities that are not s old on the markets than the existing securities (Crotty, 2009, p, 563). The fact, that sale of securities derivatives is mostly carried out by an investment bank negotiating with customers over the counter, led to

Driving under the influence Essay Example for Free

Driving under the influence Essay How many of you have ever heard of the acronym DUI? If you havent, DUI stands for driving under the influence. It means that an individual has gotten behind the wheel of the car while having consumed alcohol. In the United States, about 30 people die each day from accidents involving drunk drivers; this means that there are 48 deaths every one minute (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). In 2010, 211 youth, ages 0-14 was killed in an accident in which the driver was alcohol impaired (Center for Disease and Control Prevention, 2013). Not only does drunk driving reflect poor judgment and cause damage, but it impairs thought processes and moral behavior and could result in fatalities. Not only is drunk driving illegal, but it can cause some real damage. The legal age to use alcohol is 21, but drinkers are obligated by law to drink responsibly. The legal alcohol limit is 0. 08% (Century Council, 2013). People who are under the influence of alcohol may have blurred vision and slowed reaction time (Impacts of Underage Drinking, 2010). They are unable to move quickly in rapidly changing situations such as hitting the brakes or slowing at a yellow light. Alcohol also makes one unable to judge car’s distance on the road. The driver cannot clearly see the position of other cars on the road. They may not be able to see road signs, or medians (Impacts of Underage Drinking, 2010). Also, drinking alcohol causes poor concentration and drowsiness (Impacts of Underage Drinking, 2010). It is easy for someone who is intoxicated to fall asleep at the wheel. Coordination while drinking is also impaired. The driver will most likely have poor hand, eye, and foot coordination (Impact of Underage Drinking, 2010). The solution to avoid drunk driving is to never get behind the wheel while intoxicated. People who have consumed alcohol can designate a driver or call a cab (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). As the old saying goes, friends never let friends drive drunk. Law enforcement can also use more checkpoints to check for intoxicated drivers (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Statistics show that people who do not drink and drive are more alert and make better decisions traffic wise. Also, as many as 1500 to 3000 lives could be saved if there were more check points to judge drunk drivers and if more laws were put in place to punish drunk drivers. Imagine if the world did not have to face the threat or reality of drunk drivers. It can happen. On roadways, drivers could make the decision not to drive drunk (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). A designated driver or a taxi cab could be a lifesaver not only for a person who is intoxicated, but for others traveling on the road (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). What if true friends really looked out for friends and did not allow them to drive drunk? Now, imagine your family, perhaps a sister, a parent, or a friend driving while intoxicated. Could you stand to see the ones you love paralyzed as a result of an alcohol related accident? What if a classmate didn’t make it to graduation because someone else decided to get under the wheel of a car while drunk? These are things that no one should have to experience, but people experience the consequences every day when drunk drivers ignore the harm that they could do. In conclusion, the smart choice is to never drink and drive. Too many lives are senselessly taken each year to automobile accidents involving drunk drivers. Too much alcohol in the body impairs vision, reaction time, thought processes, and decision making. No one has to be a victim of DUI and drunk driving. Before you make the decision to drive while drunk, think about your life and what it means to you. Think about the life of your family and friends, and those you have yet to meet. A bad choice such as drunk driving could cause you to lose out on your future. It could cause you your life. A single life lost to drunk driving is one too many. We can change that here and now. Let’s make a difference. We can do it!

Panic Attack Treatment Case Study

Panic Attack Treatment Case Study Angela L. Jenkins Final Project Assessment reports are measurement tools that fit comfortably into a variety of settings. It is a necessity that all counselors utilize assessment. Assessment is a vital part of the counseling experience and should be used with every client in a formal or informal manner. The counselor should have certain skills to ensure the usefulness and correctness of assessment. Sometimes major events in a client’s life can cause assessments to be revamped, or can highlight the importance of assessments. A comprehensive report regarding Jadine Marie Sawyer’s referral reflects the need of accurate and competent application of assessments. Through careful organization of data information about the client is revealed through the use of the referral, assessments, goals and validity of the assessments. Recommendations are given as a result of the assessment outcomes and conclusions. Name of Person being assessed: Jadine Date of birth: 9-1-94 Date(s) of testing: 4-2011, 2-11-2012, 3-22-2012, 12-11-2012, 11-13-2014 Chronological age (years, months): 20 years, 2 months Reason for referral Jadine, a 20-year-old Caucasian female, was referred because of a panic attack in her math class in which it took her approximately 30 minutes to catch her breath. The experience was such that she never wants go through that again and avoids circumstances where it could possible happen. She was horrified and embarrassed by the situation. Jadine needs assistance with determining her future goals. She was at a loss describing what she wanted because her mind is so preoccupied with her daughter, being a student, and an employee that she has not considered her future. She planned on joining the military but her boyfriend is going into the Marines and she does not want her daughter to be separated from both of them. She wants to do what is best for her daughter and it is causing physical and mental ailments because she does not know how she is going to manage. The nature of the referral and the goals of the assessment Jadine had a panic attack last month which resulted in her math teacher referring her to the counseling center. She wants to take good care of her daughter and be able to provide for her needs. These concerns are weighing on her mind so heavily that they are causing her physical as well as mental issues. She also has added stress because her boyfriend is leaving for the Marines and she wants to find a way to keep their daughter in contact with her father. Jadine wants to secure her future by making sure she can provide for her daughter and not abandon her. She wants to find a happy medium between school, work, and family life that will not cause her stress. Jadine needs to discuss and clarify her interests. Understanding her assessments can help identify a career focus and begin a journey to career planning and exploration. The Brief Mood Survey can be used to assess her suicidal tendencies, her satisfaction with her relationship, anger and her anxiety level. This will help to determine the most significant areas of concern as far as her mental health and help to determine treatment planning. The MBTI measures interests, abilities, and those results can help her create a rewarding career. It also will give her better direction as far as work activities, educational programs, and enjoying down time. She will make decisions that will benefit her now and throughout her life. The ACT will show Jadine options as far as college and help her select a degree program she would like to enroll in. The Strong Basic Interest Scales represent specific interest areas that often point to work activities, projects, coursework, and leisure activities that could be personally motivating and rewarding to Jadine. Her interest levels can be used to examine interest’s areas evident in her work and lifestyle and can stimulate discussion on how she might be able to incorporate others into her plan. The questions on the Aptitude and Interest Inventories are intended to reveal in what way you think, not what you know. This therefore helps to create a more enjoyable work, home and leisure time experience. Evaluation instruments and methods American College Testing (ACT) –The ACT is a standardized test for high school achievement and college admissions. Brief Mood Survey (BMS) The BMS includes accurate scales that measure depression severity, suicidal impulses, anxiety, anger, relationship difficulties, and positive feelings such as joy, self-esteem, and productivity. The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a psychometric questionnaire intended to measure psychological preferences in how individuals see the world and make decisions. The Strong Interest Inventory (SII) is a test that uses scales to assess and match individual’s interests with potential educational, career, and leisure activities, using preferences in a variety of areas. Aptitude and Interest Inventories assesses an individual’s likes and dislikes for a variety of activities, objects, and types of persons. Brief description of the person Jadine is a single 18 year old Caucasian, female who has a hard time making friends. She is a high school graduate with a daughter named Sierra. She resides at 239 Cooper Lane, Callia, FL 34567. While she was in school she finished two college courses along with her regular classes. She graduated with honors and was 36th in her class of 626 students. Jadine is not sure what to do now that she has graduated. She has a very supportive family who means the world to her and does not know what she will so without them. Background information Initially it was suggested to Jadine to enter therapy because of a panic attack. She was anxious and nervous because her boyfriend enlisted and she was having difficulties financially. She was very concerned because she did not know how she was going to be able to take care of her daughter. Not only was she concerned about her daughter financially but physically as she entered school and found a job. Who would take of her? These concerns created mental and physical issues. Jadine’s family is very supportive. She worked in a daycare that her mom. Her mom, grandmother and Marcs (her boyfriend) mother help out with Sierra when they can. She cannot imagine life without her family. Behavioral observations Jadine is well put together when it comes to her appearance. She has a hard time concentrating and did not make much eye contact. The fact that she often folded her arms and crossed her legs displays that she is closed off and has trouble letting others in. She is guarded with a normal thought process. Thoughts that she expressed were not abstract. Jadine looked tired and thin. She seemed restless, shy, nervous, and unable to relax. She is a very nice person who is self-aware Validity statement The Strong aids in Career development—helps intensify a persons’ self-awareness and provide profound understanding of individual strengths and blind spots, including work style and risk-taking orientation. This is perfect for Jadine. The ACT Helps people achieve education and workplace success. The Brief Mood Survey was compared to such assessments as the Beck Anxiety and Depression Inventories as well as the Zung Self-Rating Anxiety and Depression Scales. It was found that it correlates highly with them. So, the Brief Mood Survey is valid for assessing Jadine’s mood and anxiety levels. The instrument is a powerful tool that can help make decisions about career and education. It does not matter whether you are just beginning your career, making a change, or thinking about education options for career preparation, you can benefit from the information in your results. You can identify a career focus and begin your career planning. The instrument measures interests and can help guide you toward careers, work activities, education programs, and leisure activities. Jadine stated that she wanted to makes changes in all that this instrument measures. She wants to find a job that will support her and her daughter. She also wants to pick a school and major where she can do well. The MBTI measures interests, abilities, and those results can help her create a rewarding career. Reported reliability for the MBTI ranges from 65% to above 90%. Validity coefficients with similar subtests of the General Aptitude and Interest Battery range from .60 to .80. Median alpha reliabilities range from .70 to .91. Assessment results The ACT shows that Jadine would do well in her first year English and reading. She has a 50% chance of earning a B or higher, or about a 75% chance of earning a C or higher in first year college courses related to English and reading. Her writing score indicates writing to be one of her strengths. Jadine demonstrated evaluation skills, solid support for her points, varied sentence structure, and well selected wording on her essay. Her scores were: Composite Score 21, English 24, Mathematics 19, Reading 23, Science 18, Combined English/Writing 25, and writing subscale (score range 2-12) 10. On the Strong Jadine’s top five interests areas include religion and spirituality; counseling and helping; and teaching and education. The Basic Interest Scales represent specific interest areas that often point to work activities, projects, coursework, and leisure activities that could be personally motivating and rewarding. Jadine’s interest levels (Very Little, Little, Moderate, High, Very High) can be used to examine interests areas evident in her work and lifestyle and can stimulate discussion on how she might be able to incorporate others into her plan such as her daughter. The Brief Mood Survey assess mood in various categories. Jadine’s results were depression and anger were scores of 7 which means they are in the mild range and there is no need for alarm just yet. Jadine scored a 0 for suicidal ideation. She also stated that she was not suicidal on the intake questionnaire. Her score of 18 on relationship satisfaction was neutral while her score of 23 for anxiety was extreme. This needs to be addressed right away. These results were very accurate as far as Jadine is concerned. Summary of assessment results and conclusions Jadines MBTI results showed that her highest themes were social and artistic. These themes describe peoples personalities and environments they work in. People who have high scores in these areas enjoy close, personal connections and using creativity to make a difference in the lives’ of others. Jadine is a collaborative helper who will be appreciated for her ability to encourage others to talk about their ideas, get others to agree on decisions, aid in creating structure and organization and making sure projects are completed. Some of the jobs that she would do well in are speech pathologist, special education teacher, elementary school teacher, and social worker. Recommendations I would recommend that Jadine continue counseling because now she has learned some things about herself and has some direction. She needs to use what she has learned and discuss actions she has taken. Her mental and physical concerns regarding her challenges need to be readdressed. Further assessing is need to help her to really narrow down job choices and I would recommend that so that she can really decide on a job that will fit her comfort level with others until she learns to make friends more easily. Jadine might also consider regular counseling to determine her treatment progress. By measuring Jadine’s symptomology it will indicate whether the current interventions are facilitating growth. _____________________________ Signature and credentials Conclusion Jadine was referred by her math teacher because of a panic attack. She was feeling uncertain of her future especially in regards to her daughter. She did not know how she was going to take care of her financially or physically. Her boyfriend was leaving for the Marines. These circumstances caused her physical and emotional distress. Jadine needed help with decisions for her future, college, work and her physical and emotional distress. She took the ACT, The Strong Interest Inventory, The Brief Mood Survey, The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator and Aptitude and Interest Inventories. These assessments provided her with some needed direction. I recommended that she continue counseling so she can discuss the progress she has made, how she is dealing with changes in her life and to if interventions have helped with her distress. These assessments have been very beneficial in that they help individuals learn about themselves in ways that will give direction to degree choice, job contentment, career, relationships and even leisure time satisfaction. Assessments are vital tools because they can determine exactly where a client is mentally, physically and emotionally. Careful consideration needs to be taken when deciding what assessment should be used. They should be used with each client in future counseling endeavors.

One Hundred Years of Solitude - Magic Realism Essay -- One Hundred Yea

One Hundred Years of Solitude - Magic Realism One Hundred Years of Solitude   Magic realism is a literary form in which odd, eerie, and dreamlike tales are related as if the events were commonplace. Magic realism is the opposite of the "once-upon-a-time" style of story telling in which the author emphasizes the fantastic quality of imaginary events. In the world of magic realism, the narrator speaks of the surreal so naturally it becomes real. Magic realism can be traced back to Jorge Luis Borges, who wrote during the 1920s,according to noted critic Franco (309). In fact, Jean Franco notes that "the techniques utilized by Garcà ­a Mà ¡rquez in One Hundred Years of Solitude are frequently compared to those of Jorge Luis Borges" Franco (309). However, it was not until the 1940s that Latin American writers began to experiment widely with new techniques and introduced stream of consciousness narration, unusual time sequences and other devices into the novel. In the 1940s, a group of Latin American writers published works which incorporated new techniques. ...

Epiphany in Astronomer’s Wife, When I consider how my light is spent and Everything That Rises Must :: Comparison Compare Contrast Essays

Epiphany in Astronomer’s Wife, When I consider how my light is spent and Everything That Rises Must Converge The short story, â€Å"Astronomer’s Wife,† by Kay Boyle is one of perseverance and change. Mrs. Ames, because of neglect from her husband, becomes an emotionless and almost childlike woman. As a result, Mrs. Ames, much like John Milton in his poem, â€Å"When I consider how my light is spent† (974), is in darkness, unaware of the reality and truth of the outside world. However, the plumber who is trying to repair leaking pipes in her house, starts by repairing the leaking pipes in her heart. He helps her realize that the life she is living is not a fulfilling one. In short, to Mrs. Ames, â€Å"[†¦] life is an open sea, she sought to explain in sorrow, and to survive women cling to the floating debris on the tide† (Boyle 59). Similarly, in Flannery O’Connor’s short story, â€Å"Everything That Rises Must Converge,† the mother is also â€Å"cling[ing] to floating debris† (Boyle 59). She is trying to hold on to her old life, the one in which she is socially better than blacks and other women. But, like Milton and Mrs. Ames, she is soon forced to see the world in a new perspective. Thus, a new life is created for Mrs. Ames and the mother after their epiphanies, with the realization of a new world, one in which hard work and understanding can lead to change in one’s life and of one’s identity. Before Mrs. Ames and the mother realize the restrictions of their old lives, their worlds have been full of disillusionment and ignorance. Mrs. Ames, for example, is oppressed by her husband’s silence and the search for love and tenderness from anyone, because she lives each day alone, ignored by her scornful husband. And, as a result of being left companionless, she does not mature, rather she longs for tenderness. In other words, Boyle explains her dysfunctional relationship with her husband, â€Å"The mystery and silence of her husband’s mind lay like a chiding finger of her lips. Her eyes were gray for the light had been extinguished in them† (57). That is, Mrs. Ames’ spirit remains oppressed by her husband who treats her as a child, and, in doing so, isolates her from his world.

Bowlby’s Ethological Attachment Theory Essay

Abstract Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory bases its argument on the premise that human individuals, just like animals have a tendency to have a natural inclination to establish and maintain lasting affectionate bonds (attachments) to the familiar and irreplaceable others. Bowlby further asserts that once the attachments are established, the strength, and stability of the links is related the emotional stability and well-being of the individual throughout life. Bowlby proposes that the attachment initially form during infancy and often involve one primary attachment figure (mostly the mother or other primary caregiver). However, growth from childhood to adulthood results in the development of other secondary and multiple attachments which are organized into hierarchies from the most accessible to the least accessible. This forms the lifespan development of an individual as attachment needs for comfort and closeness shift from parents to peers as part of a healthy lifespan development. This paper discusses Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory as a theory of lifespan development. The paper is organized with an introduction which briefly discusses the concept of ethology and its ancestry from the study on the graylag geese by Konrad Lorenz. It further presents the contributions of Bowlby and the applications of the theory on human beings lifespan development and contemporary practice. The paper logically ends with a conclusion. Introduction Ethology emphasizes that human behavior is tied to evolution and biology, and is therefore characterized by critical periods. According to ethnologists, the critical periods are time frames during which the presence of lack of certain experiences exerts long-lasting influence on human individuals. The concept of ethology rose to prominence after a European zoologist (Lorenz) undertook a behavioral study on graylag geese and their behavior of following their mothers immediately after they hatch (Marga, 2011). In his  attempt to study on attachment, Lorenz subdivided the eggs laid by one goose into two groups with one being given to the mother for hatching while the other was hatched in an incubator. The goslings hatched by the mother followed the mother immediately after hatching while those hatched in the incubator followed Lorenz sine he was the one they saw immediately after hatching. Even after marking the goslings and placing them in a box, the goslings run to the mother and Lo renz according immediately after the box was opened (van der Horst & van der Veer, 2009). Lorenz described the process as imprinting. Imprinting refers to the process through which rapid, innate learning takes place and involves the creation of attachment to the first mobile object visible to a newly hatched gosling. John Bowlby took the concept ahead illustrating an application of ethological theory on human behavior and development. In his view, attachment to a caregiver during the first year of a child has significant consequences throughout the individual’s lifespan. In his words, attachment influences human relationships â€Å"from the cradle to the grave† (Pitman & Scharfe, 2010, p. 201). Bowlby argues that if the attachment is both positive and secure, the individual has a high likelihood of developing positively through childhood and into adulthood. On the other side, if the attachment is both negative and insecure, the individual has high chances of not attaining optimal life-span development. It is the concern of human individuals that they reach optimal lifespan development, something that ethological theory partly tries to explain. This paper discusses Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory and its applications in the course of lifespan development. Bowlby’s perspectives on ethological attachment theory From the perspective of ethological theory, babies have an innate biological preparation to participate actively towards the establishment of a bond with caregivers. The ethological theory holds that such an attachment promotes the likelihood that the genes of individuals survive (Makulincer & Shaver, 2012). The theory also posits that the behaviors of children are best understood in the context of their adaptive value hence they seek to fully integrate with the entire organism-environment arrangement. This includes physical, social as well as the cultural aspects an individual is exposed to in the course of life-span development. While Bowlby’s ethological theory  places its emphasis on genetics and biological aspects of development, learning also plays an integral role in life-span development since it facilitates flexibility and adaptation of human behavior. One of Bowlby’s concerns had to do with the ability of children raised in other institutions such as orphanages to form lasting relationships. Bowlby’s proposal was that children who grow up in institutions such as orphanages have difficulties when it comes to love because they never had the opportunity to establish attachments to a mother figure in the early stage of their lives. The attachment, in Bowlby’s view, is an emotional bond established between two people and this attachment is vital in the building of healthy relationships (Makulincer, Shaver & Berant, 2013). He argued that the bonding process starts at birth and runs through to later stages in life. Below six months, the infant is attached to the primary caregiver. Between six to eighteen months, the separation of the child from the attachment figure upsets the child causing frequent cries. Another accompanying behavior at this stage is the fear of strangers. While infants develop a primary attachment to a single caregiver, researchers also argue that other significant attachments also develop. Such attachments include those with siblings, fathers, and other close figures who interact with the child. Mary Ainsworth, an American scholar to study the area of attachment describes the attachments as secondary attachments (Marga, 2011). She further describes secondary attachments as important bonds in the life-span development of an individual. These attachments are vital since the child has to live in world beyond the mother/primary caregiver. Secondary attachments help in the transformation of the child from the comfortable symbiotic relationship that he/she initially forms with the primary caregiver to include others in the society (Makulincer & Shaver, 2012). It is from this development that the child is able to develop age-appropriate independence and autonomy in the course of life-span development. Children imitate their models and the positive interactions with the caregiver promote a sense of identity and attachment. Children also develop multiple attachments as witnessed in Ainsworth’s secondary attachments (Marga, 2011). A father who is warm and affectionate towards the child becomes emotionally involved with the child and establishes attachment. Researchers also find that when sons feel understood by their fathers, they develop attachments towards, their  fathers. On the other side, when sons feel misunderstood by their fathers, they did not only feel afraid of them but also did not want to be like the male parent in the future. The lesson here is that paternal affection and understanding are key components that help in the promotion of positive relationships and attachments between a male parent and the child. According to Sable (2008), Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory is recognized as a lifespan developmental theory. The author further argues that it is relevant in the understanding of how early affection experiences exert influence on emotional and physical well being of an individual both in childhood and adulthood. The author specifically singles the importance of Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory in clinical practice as it helps in understanding clients’ distress and the carrying out of psychotherapy. Contemporary research on neurobiology of attachment extends the basis of Bowlby’s conception of an attachment behavior system and suggests that its functions are executed in the brain’s right hemisphere, specifically the right cortex (Sable, 2008). Just like Bowlby asserts that attachment system evolves on the need for protection from environmental dangers such as predation, the brain is also an evolving organ largely influenced by â€Å"nat ural selection† (Sable, 2008, p. 22) and later shaped by environmental experiences. It is from this realization that knowledge of attachment theories becomes invaluable in psychotherapy. Application of Bowlby’s ethological attachment in lifespan development According to Pitman & Scharfe (2010), the principles of attachment theory are distinctively visible in moments of distress or sickness when the individual feels that their survival is under threat. However, there are many other instances when attachment behaviors are manifest such as children’s first experiences in schools and day care centers. Pitman & Scharfe (2010) observe that during the first day in day care centers, children experience increases in cortisol levels and heart rates. In the course of an individual’s developmental lifespan, other incidences include airport separations when couples display attachment behaviors as well as distress irrespective of their attachment security. Knowledge of attachment is useful in psychotherapy. According to Pitman & Scharfe (2010), individuals with high attachment anxiety and avoidance experience greater physical symptoms in comparison with individuals who have low attachment anxiety and avoidance. The researchers  also report on the existence of an association between attachment anxiety and avoidance on one hand and depression on the other across varying age groups. These range from samples of children and adolescents, emerging adults, married couples, community samples in transition to parenthood, university samples, as well as clinical samples. The results indicate an association between higher attachment anxiety and avoidance with depression (Sable, 2008). The establishment of attachment with the therapists determines the effectiveness of a therapist in giving assistance to a client. Bowlby believes that the development of a new attachment with a therapist enables the therapist to assist the client in revising the story of the client’s life into a more consiste nt narrative. According to Sable (2010), the role of the therapist is to provide a springboard for change and this is possible through joint exploration of the painful feelings and the unhappy events that contribute the current emotional problems of the client. In order to win this trust, the therapist ought to become a relatively secure base where the client experiences safety and support. The therapist has to cultivate for this attachment through calming and soothing interactions although it may take some time before the therapist is accepted and felt as emotionally familiar and affectively accustomed to the client. One of the applications of Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory by clinicians is in the assessment of the client’s attachment style so that the clinician can regulate the therapeutic approach (Sable, 2010). The outcomes of a therapy process reveal that avoidant outpatients show minimal clinical improvements in comparison to the secure and anxious outpatients after individual therapy (Makulincer, Shaver & Berant, 2013). They also report that in a study carried out in a university program training clinic, avoidant attachment had an inverse relationship to psychotherapy outcome. Researchers agree that problems in the working alliance between clients and therapists partially mediate the avoidance-outcome association. In another sample of clients with eating disorders, avoidant-attachment was linked with dropout of group psychotherapy. Another contemporary application of Bowlby’s ethological theory is in the diagnosis of the reactive attachment disorder. Follan & Minnis (2009) investigate the cases of the forty-four juvenile thieves described as affectionless psychopaths. Out of the sampled ‘juvenile thieves,’ 86 percent had undergone through prolonged separation  from primary caregivers in the early stages of their lives apart from being placed under multiple care placements. Follan & Minnis (2009) find out that in their sample, 60 percent of children with reactive attachment disorder had been separated from their homes either resulting from neglect or other types of maltreatment. According to Bowlby, the experience of separation from primary caregivers was a key etiological factor contributing towards the development of difficulties in children. These findings lend credence to Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory in the diagnosis of reactive attachment disorder (RAD). While Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory receives worldwide support, it also faces some criticisms. One such criticism is its reliance on biology and evolution as the basis of development as well as the use of selective observations in naturalistic situations. Marga (2011) presents contradicting reports of a study involving 162 farm children where there was no relation between infant training on one hand and personality development on the other. As a result, the research er implores scientists to â€Å"quit blaming mom† as a dismissal to Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory. While the criticisms are there, Bowlby’s ethological theory receives widespread support and application as it relates to the lifespan development of an individual. Conclusion The behavioral development of a human being begins at birth and occurrences at the formative years determine the personality development of the individual later in adulthood. Many theories such as the behavioral and psychoanalytic theories explain personality development of the human individual. The quality of the entire human life is the accurate measure of effective lifespan development of the individual. Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory argues that human individuals develop attachments to primary caregivers that are affectionate and supportive. As individuals grow, they develop other secondary and multiple attachments with peers in order to get security as they interact with different environments. Bowlby’s perspective has received widespread acceptance although it has also been criticized for placing emphasis on biology and evolution. Nevertheless, the theory receives application in psychotherapy. Researchers report that clients are open up to therapists after they develop a feeling of security and attachment with the therapist. There is evidence that psychotherapy  outcomes also depend on the establishment of attachment between the client and the therapist. There is also a link between avoidant-attachment and dropout of group psychotherapy. The theory specifically helps in understanding the distress of clients in various stages in life and this facilitates positive outcomes during physiotherapy. There is further evidence that Bowlby’s ethological attachment theory also helps in the diagnosis of reactive attachment disorder. 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